Rational number: bigint, bigrat, bigfloat

We introduce the rational number as native Go+ types. We use suffix r to denote rational literals. For example, (1r << 200) means a big int whose value is equal to 2²⁰⁰. And 4/5r means the rational constant 4/5.

import "math/big"

var a bigint = 1r << 65  // bigint, large than int64
var b bigrat = 4/5r      // bigrat
c := b - 1/3r + 3 * 1/2r // bigrat
println a, b, c

var x *big.Int = 1r << 65 // (1r << 65) is untyped bigint, and can be assigned to *big.Int
var y *big.Rat = 4/5r
println x, y

Large integer: uint128, int128

var x uint128 = 1 << 65
var y = x + 1
println x // output: 36893488147419103232
println y // output: 36893488147419103233

Convert bool to number types

println int(true)       // output: 1
println float64(true)   // output: 1
println complex64(true) // output: (1+0i)

Map literal

x := {"Hello": 1, "xsw": 3.4}   // map[string]float64
y := {"Hello": 1, "xsw": "Go+"} // map[string]interface{}
z := {"Hello": 1, "xsw": 3}     // map[string]int
empty := {}                     // map[string]interface{}

println x, y, z, empty

Slice literal

x := [1, 3.4]       // []float64
y := [1]            // []int
z := [1+2i, "xsw"]  // []interface{}
a := [1, 3.4, 3+4i] // []complex128
b := [5+6i]         // []complex128
c := ["xsw", 3]     // []interface{}
empty := []         // []interface{}

println x, y, z, a, b, c, empty

Lambda expression

func plot(fn func(x float64) float64) {
    // ...
}

func plot2(fn func(x float64) (float64, float64)) {
    // ...
}

plot x => x * x           // plot(func(x float64) float64 { return x * x })
plot2 x => (x * x, x + x) // plot2(func(x float64) (float64, float64) { return x * x, x + x })

Deduce struct type

type Config struct {
    Dir   string
    Level int
}

func foo(conf *Config) {
    // ...
}

foo {Dir: "/foo/bar", Level: 1}

Here foo {Dir: "/foo/bar", Level: 1} is equivalent to foo(&Config{Dir: "/foo/bar", Level: 1}). However, you can't replace foo(&Config{"/foo/bar", 1}) with foo {"/foo/bar", 1}, because it is confusing to consider {"/foo/bar", 1} as a struct literal.

You also can omit struct types in a return statement. For example:

type Result struct {
    Text string
}

func foo() *Result {
    return {Text: "Hi, Go+"} // return &Result{Text: "Hi, Go+"}
}

println foo()

List comprehension

a := [x*x for x <- [1, 3, 5, 7, 11]]
b := [x*x for x <- [1, 3, 5, 7, 11], x > 3]
c := [i+v for i, v <- [1, 3, 5, 7, 11], i%2 == 1]
d := [k+","+s for k, s <- {"Hello": "xsw", "Hi": "Go+"}]

arr := [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
e := [[a, b] for a <- arr, a < b for b <- arr, b > 2]

x := {x: i for i, x <- [1, 3, 5, 7, 11]}
y := {x: i for i, x <- [1, 3, 5, 7, 11], i%2 == 1}
z := {v: k for k, v <- {1: "Hello", 3: "Hi", 5: "xsw", 7: "Go+"}, k > 3}

println a, b, c, d, arr, e, x, y, z

Select data from a collection

type student struct {
    name  string
    score int
}

students := [student{"Ken", 90}, student{"Jason", 80}, student{"Lily", 85}]

unknownScore, ok := {x.score for x <- students, x.name == "Unknown"}
jasonScore := {x.score for x <- students, x.name == "Jason"}

println unknownScore, ok // output: 0 false
println jasonScore // output: 80

Check if data exists in a collection

type student struct {
    name  string
    score int
}

students := [student{"Ken", 90}, student{"Jason", 80}, student{"Lily", 85}]

hasJason := {for x <- students, x.name == "Jason"} // is any student named Jason?
hasFailed := {for x <- students, x.score < 60}     // is any student failed?

println hasJason, hasFailed

For loop

sum := 0
for x <- [1, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17], x > 3 {
    sum += x
}

println sum

Range expression (start:end:step)

for i <- :10 {
    println i
}

for i := range :10:2 {
    println i
}

for i := range 1:10:3 {
    println i
}

for range :10 {
    println "Range expression"
}

For range of UDT

type Foo struct {
}

// Gop_Enum(proc func(val ValType)) or:
// Gop_Enum(proc func(key KeyType, val ValType))
func (p *Foo) Gop_Enum(proc func(key int, val string)) {
    // ...
}

foo := &Foo{}
for k, v := range foo {
    println k, v
}

for k, v <- foo {
    println k, v
}

println {v: k for k, v <- foo}

Note: you can't use break/continue or return statements in for range of udt.Gop_Enum(callback).

For range of UDT2

type FooIter struct {
}

// (Iterator) Next() (val ValType, ok bool) or:
// (Iterator) Next() (key KeyType, val ValType, ok bool)
func (p *FooIter) Next() (key int, val string, ok bool) {
    // ...
}

type Foo struct {
}

// Gop_Enum() Iterator
func (p *Foo) Gop_Enum() *FooIter {
    // ...
}

foo := &Foo{}
for k, v := range foo {
    println k, v
}

for k, v <- foo {
    println k, v
}

println {v: k for k, v <- foo}

Overload operators

import "math/big"

type MyBigInt struct {
    *big.Int
}

func Int(v *big.Int) MyBigInt {
    return MyBigInt{v}
}

func (a MyBigInt) + (b MyBigInt) MyBigInt { // binary operator
    return MyBigInt{new(big.Int).Add(a.Int, b.Int)}
}

func (a MyBigInt) += (b MyBigInt) {
    a.Int.Add(a.Int, b.Int)
}

func -(a MyBigInt) MyBigInt { // unary operator
    return MyBigInt{new(big.Int).Neg(a.Int)}
}

a := Int(1r)
a += Int(2r)
println a + Int(3r)
println -a

Error handling

We reinvent the error handling specification in Go+. We call them ErrWrap expressions:

expr! // panic if err
expr? // return if err
expr?:defval // use defval if err

How to use them? Here is an example:

import (
    "strconv"
)

func add(x, y string) (int, error) {
    return strconv.Atoi(x)? + strconv.Atoi(y)?, nil
}

func addSafe(x, y string) int {
    return strconv.Atoi(x)?:0 + strconv.Atoi(y)?:0
}

println `add("100", "23"):`, add("100", "23")!

sum, err := add("10", "abc")
println `add("10", "abc"):`, sum, err

println `addSafe("10", "abc"):`, addSafe("10", "abc")

The output of this example is:

add("100", "23"): 123
add("10", "abc"): 0 strconv.Atoi: parsing "abc": invalid syntax

===> errors stack:
main.add("10", "abc")
    /Users/xsw/tutorial/15-ErrWrap/err_wrap.gop:6 strconv.Atoi(y)?

addSafe("10", "abc"): 10

Compared to corresponding Go code, It is clear and more readable.

And the most interesting thing is, the return error contains the full error stack. When we got an error, it is very easy to position what the root cause is.

How these ErrWrap expressions work? See Error Handling for more information.

Auto property

Let's see an example written in Go+:

import "gop/ast/goptest"

doc := goptest.New(`... Go+ code ...`)!

println doc.Any().FuncDecl().Name()

In many languages, there is a concept named property who has get and set methods.

Suppose we have get property, the above example will be:

import "gop/ast/goptest"

doc := goptest.New(`... Go+ code ...`)!

println doc.any.funcDecl.name

In Go+, we introduce a concept named auto property. It is a get property, but is implemented automatically. If we have a method named Bar(), then we will have a get property named bar at the same time.

Unix shebang

You can use Go+ programs as shell scripts now. For example:

#!/usr/bin/env -S gop run

println "Hello, Go+"

println 1r << 129
println 1/3r + 2/7r*2

arr := [1, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19]
println arr
println [x*x for x <- arr, x > 3]

m := {"Hi": 1, "Go+": 2}
println m
println {v: k for k, v <- m}
println [k for k, _ <- m]
println [v for v <- m]

Go 20-Unix-Shebang/shebang to get the source code.